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'WE BELONG TO THE NORTH': THE FLIGHTS OF THE NORTHERN INDIANS FROM THE WHITE RIVER AGENCIES, 1877-1878
Montana: The Magazine of Western History, Summer 2005 by Bray, Kingsley M
Two linked issues stand out as the fundamental causes of the flights: political marginalization and the agency relocation issue. Crook's promise of a separate reservation in the north-however qualified, however magnified by agency peace-talkers-secured the surrenders on White River. Although many of Crook's subordinates supported the scheme, the general's failure to win top-level backing soured the tentative accord built up in the weeks following surrender. As the Northern Lakotas grasped the reality of relocation to the Missouri, the grim sequence of events culminating in Crazy Horse's tragic death was set in motion.
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With the illusion of a separate reserve exposed, the Northern Lakotas faced life on White River as increasingly unwelcome guests. After the removal of Crazy Horse, they came under increased pressure to dissolve their village organizations and assimilate to agency bands. This pressure was especially true at the Brulé agency, where Spotted Tail would tolerate no opposition. For some of the rank and file, this change proved acceptable. Families simply shifted over to join agency relatives, accepting the seniority of Brulé chiefs. For the Northern leaders, however, this spelled political eclipse. Significantly, only the controversial Little Big Man settled permanently on the White River. The Northern leaders preferred to lead depleted followings either to Canada or, in the case of Touch the Clouds, back to the home agency at Cheyenne River rather than to accept being overshadowed at Spotted Tail and Red Cloud Agencies.
The breakaway movement represented the last chance for reforming the coalition that had defeated Crook and annihilated Custer. But the extinction of the buffalo in the north ensured that the surrenders of 1880-1881 were final. There was no further opportunity for flight because the mainstay of the old life had gone. From then on, the reservation was no longer one disagreeable option but the non-negotiable central fact of life for all Lakotas.
1. Papers Relating to the Sioux Indians of the United States Who Have Taken Refuge in Canadian Territory, Printed Confidentially for the Use of Ministers of the Crown (Ottawa, 1879), 9-10, 12-13, 16, details Lakota crossings into Canada between November 1876 and May 1877. see also Harry Anderson, "A Sioux Pictorial Account of General Terry's Council at Fort Walsh, October 17,1877,"North Dakota History, 22 (July 1955), 105. For an overview of the Great Sioux War, see John S. Gray. Centennial Campaign: The Sioux War of 1876 (Fort Collins, CoIo., 1976). Late phases of the war are best treated by Jerome A. Greene, Yellowstone Command: ColonelNelson A. Miles and the Great Sioux War, 1876-1877 (Lincoln, 1991). The Lakota or Teton Sioux are made up of seven tribal divisions: the Oglalas, Brulés, Miniconjous. Two Kettles, Sans Arcs, Sihasapas. and Hunkpapas. As a baseline for what follows, the 300 lodges in Canada as of May 1877 roughly break down to 185 lodges Hunkpapas, 45 lodges Sans Arcs, 35 lodges Miniconjous, 20 lodges Sihasapas, and 15 lodges Oglalas and other stragglers. For a population estimate after the 1877-1878 breakaways, see note 65.
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