UNITED NATIONS, DECOLONIZATION, AND SELF-DETERMINATION IN COLD WAR SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA, 1960-1994, THE

NOTES

1. T.C. McCaskie, "Cultural Encounters: Britain and Africa in the Nineteenth Century," in The Oxford History of the British Empire, vol. Ill, Andrew Porter, ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 665-689.

2. Toyin Falola and A.D. Roberts, "West Africa ," in The Oxford History of the British Empire, vol. IV, J. Brown and W.R. Louis, eds. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 515-529.

3. Latin American states, while many of them of "developing" status, mostly supported U.S. or western interests in the early UN and thus, for political purposes, more or less belonged to the western bloc during the early years.

4. See "The Admission of New Members" in Yearbook of the United Nations, 1955, pp. 22-30.

5. Hammarskjold sensed the growing importance of the newly independent world, brokering the 1955 agreement that ended the membership logjam. The UN had 60 member nations at the beginning of his tenure and more than 100 at the time of his death in the Congo in 1961. His tenure coincided with a period of significant upheaval and conflict around the world, including the Suez Crisis (1956), the Algerian war of independence (1954-1962), the crisis over Lebanon (1958), the Congo decolonization crisis (1960-1962) resulting in Hammarskjold's death, and a growing American involvement in Indochina. Increasingly, after 1955, the focus of the United Nations would turn to the problems of the newly independent world, managing conflicts largely the consequence of decolonization, and addressing issues of economic development. Brian Urquhart, Hammarskjold (New York: Harper, 1972), pp. 377-388.

6. Urquhart, Hammarslgold, p. 3 81.

7. Although not perceived at the time, the Congo crisis became an important turning point in "first-generation" peacekeeping. Never again, in the three-decade duration of the Cold War, would the United Nations mount an operation on such a scale.

8. Belgium's domination of the Congo was harsh, even by the merciless standards of European rule in Africa, as the Belgians implemented a system of forced labor using genocide and systematic terrorism to maximize the extraction of the Congo's wealth, such as gold, diamonds, lumber, and coffee.

9. See "Questions Relating to the Situation in the Republic of the Congo (Leopoldville)," in Yearbook of the United Nations, 1960, pp. 52-108.

10. Norrie MacQueen, United Nations Peacekeeping in Africa Since 1960 (London: Longman, 2002), pp. 42-57. United Nations Operation in the Congo (July 1960 to June 1964), Background, at www.un.org/Depts/DPKO/Missions/onucB.htm.

11. "United Nations Force in the Congo," Yearbook of the United Nations, 1960, p. 108. See also UN documents on the Congo crisis at www.un.org/Depts/DPKO/Missions/onucD.htm.

12. Keith Kyle, a journalist who covered the crisis, recalls that Hammarskjold "did not hesitate to take action over the Congo. But it is important to bear in mind that it was not exactly the action for which the Congolese had originally asked." see Keith KyIe, "The UN in the Congo," Conflict Date Service, INCORE, at www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/home/publication/occasional/kyle.html.