Popular Representations of the Trinity in England, 990-1300

Folklore, Oct, 2001 by Ursula Rowlatt

To the ordinary layman in England in 990-1300, whether knight or peasant, a sense of divine power was omnipresent. Trinitarian belief was expressed on all sides by the frequent use of the blessing "In the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit," whether by priests during Mass or by the laity under good or bad circumstances of daily life. Evil spirits were confounded by making the sign of the cross or by sprinkling water or salt which had been made holy by consecration by the priest in the name of the Trinity. Possibly, the existence of the Trinity was better understood by the faithful, who were fully aware of the importance of gesture, than the intellectual concept of salvation by a crucified God in human form, as emphasised by Saint Paul. However, both aspects of the cross came together in the Mass. The priest blessed the people in the name of the Trinity at the beginning and end of the service but the central part, in which the sign of the cross was made frequently, was a celebration of the events of the Last Supper.

A detailed treatment of the doctrine of the Trinity appeared in a series of Old English Catholic homilies written by Aelfric of Eynsham in 992 (Grundy 1991, 25). Although a well-educated Benedictine monk, he was anxious to address the priests and people in a language that they understood. His discourse added little to that of Saint Augustine (De Trinitate). Subtle refinements were added to Catholic doctrine in the thirteenth century under the influence of scholastic arguments that were being elaborated in France by Saint Thomas Aquinas, Saint Bonaventura and others. These were transmitted to the laity in a simplified form by the preaching friars, who had been trained themselves at the University of Paris. Furthermore, annual confession had been made obligatory in 1215 at the Fourth Lateran Council so that a priest had an opportunity to talk privately to the penitents and to correct errors as well as giving them absolution for their sins.

To make the sign of the cross in the approved manner, the priest held his right hand uplifted with the palm facing outwards towards the people, with his thumb and first two fingers extended to represent the Trinity, the remaining two fingers being flexed to represent the human and divine natures of Christ. Slowly, he made a vertical stroke in the air from forehead to breast, then from the left shoulder to the right (Cabrol 1934, 230). During Mass, the people knelt on the floor, stood for the reading of the gospel, and knelt again at the ringing of the Sanctus bell, when the holiest part of the service was about to begin. It would have been appropriate for the laity, who worshipped in the nave, to say private prayers quietly to themselves while Mass was being said in Latin in the chancel; responses were made on their behalf by the acolyte (server). A homily would have been preached between the reading of the gospel and the central canon of the Mass but the question of how often and of what quality is still being discussed (Shinners 1997, 29). Boyle, in reviewing the contents of manuals of popular theology written before 1215, found that simple pastoral expositions on God, the Trinity and the Incarnation were rare (Boyle 1985, 39). Preaching was seen more as moral instruction than as a proclamation of the Word of God.

The church itself had been blessed at the time of consecration by the bishop, who made the sign of the cross, inside and outside at prescribed places marked by a metal inlay or stone incision. The altar was anointed with holy (consecrated) oil at its centre and four corners (Anderson 1955, 40 and 45). Other, so-called votive crosses were scratched into the outer walls, presumably made on the spur of the moment by worshippers. Many churches were named for the Holy Trinity (Raw 1997, 12). Between Sunday and weekly services, the church and churchyard were used for markets, fairs and courts, despite repeated prohibitions by kings and bishops (Harding 1993, 90). However, the laity were extraordinarily devout, for it was in response to popular demand that Thomas a Becket obtained papal permission in the mid-twelfth century to introduce a special feast called Trinity Sunday on the first Sunday after Pentecost (Hardon 1980, 548); it became general in 1334.

Baptism was the most important sacrament after the Mass. It was performed, as was confirmation, in the presence of the whole parish on Easter Saturday, when the faithful renewed their own baptismal commitment (Steuart 1953, 221). Emphasis was on the use of running water, or total immersion in the case of babies. So important was it that a sick infant should not die before being baptised, that Gerald of Wales in the thirteenth century insisted that all parish priests should instruct their parishioners as to how to conduct the ceremony themselves if need be. They were:

   to say these words while immersing the child three times: "I baptise you in
   the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit" ... it does
   not matter whether the words are in Latin, even though incorrectly said, or
   one's native tongue, as long as the sense is expressed (Gerald of Wales).

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Popular Representations of the Trinity in England, 990-1300

Folklore, Oct, 2001 by Ursula Rowlatt

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