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Exploring the limits of science and beyond: research strategy and status
Journal of Parapsychology, The, March, 1994 by J.E. Kennedy
Concepts that are outside the domain of science can have value. Popper (1983, pp. 175-177) was dismayed that his work on the scientific method was used to discredit or disregard concepts that are outside the domain of science at a given time. He firmly believed that such concepts may sometimes have meaning and value. Of course the concepts are in the realm of metaphysics, not science. On a more empirical level, a variety of important questions about personal beliefs and experiences can be scientifically investigated even though the underlying reality of the beliefs and experiences is not one of them. Questions such as "Does a particular belief or experience have beneficial or detrimental effects on a person?" and "What leads people to hold these beliefs or have these experiences?" can be scientifically investigated. These investigations are important in order that individuals and society may gain any benefits and avoid any adverse effects from various experiences or belief systems.
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In particular, scientific methods can be used to investigate the effects of experiences and belief systems on health and well-being even when the underlying reality of the experiences or beliefs are not testable.(6) One cannot assume that there are no beneficial effects simply because the mechanisms are unknown, particularly for beliefs or experiences that are relatively common and therefore presumably fill some need.
Anomalous or paranormal experiences can result in beneficial effects on people's well-being and health. People with near-death experiences commonly report that the experience enhanced their appreciation of life, understanding of self and others, concern and tolerance for others, and sense of purpose and meaning for their lives (Ring, 1984; Sabom, 1982). Suicidal tendencies are reduced after near-death experiences (Greyson, 1981; Ring & Franklin, 1981-1982). The experiencers usually believe they directly experienced the realm of life after death, but, of course, researchers firmly adhering to the scientific method currently entertain more falsifiable hypotheses. Other types of anomalous or paranormal experiences apparently can sometimes induce similar life transformations, but they have received relatively little research effort (Gabbard & Twemlow, 1984; Hardy, 1979; Milton, 1992; Ring, 1984).
Numerous studies have found positive relationships between religious beliefs or practices and physical or mental health measures (recent reviews include: Chamberlain & Zika, 1992; Gartner, Larson, & Allen, 1991; Koenig, 1990, 1993; Larson, et al., 1992; Levin & Schiller, 1987; Levin & Vanderpool, 1989). For example, Levin and Schiller (1987) reviewed over 200 studies that examined religious beliefs and physical health measures including cardiovascular disease, hypertension, stroke, and general mortality. Likewise, Gartner, Larson, and Allen (1991) reviewed over 200 studies on religious commitment and mental health. The reasons for the generally positive relationships between religious beliefs and health need further research. Levin and Vanderpool (1989) discuss twelve possible explanations for these relationships, ranging from lifestyle and social support factors to paranormal influences. Although the mechanisms for the correlations with health can be investigated, the underlying religious beliefs about God are outside the realm of direct scientific investigation at present.
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