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Why is PSI so elusive? A review and proposed model
Journal of Parapsychology, The, Sept, 2001 by J.E. Kennedy
These concepts cannot be directly tested and therefore must be rejected in favor of hypotheses that can be investigated scientifically. The idea that psi effects are produced by gods or other beings that were never alive on earth is even less testable than the spirit survival hypothesis and is virtually never mentioned in scientific discussions.
Conclusion
The reality of nonphysical beings can be neither proved nor disproved at present. The possibility that research on the motivations and experiences causing these beliefs may provide insights into the elusive nature of psi remains largely unexplored.
OVERALL CONCLUSIONS
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No single hypothesis stands out as explaining the elusive nature of psi. For several hypotheses, the available evidence suggests that the hypothesis may possibly contribute to the elusive nature of psi but other factors have a larger role. For other hypotheses, there is little relevant data or the data are inconclusive.
This situation could indicate that many factors combine together to make psi elusive. If this were true, each hypothesis alone would have a minor role compared with the combined effect of all the other factors.
PROPOSED MODEL
The following model or set of hypotheses is intended to organize the diverse findings in a way that may establish priorities for further research. Many existing findings in the parapsychological literature relate to this model; however, more extensive evaluation of the model is beyond the scope of the present article.
1. The tendency and ability to have anomalous experiences has a bimodal distribution with two distinct groups: those who have many experiences and those who have few or none (Kohr, 1980; Palmer, 1979). Those with many experiences tend to have a variety of experiences and appear to have a more open exchange of information with unconscious processes (Kennedy & Kanthamani, 1995a; Palmer, 1979; Thalbourne & Delin, 1994). It is likely that there is a significant genetic component for these differences. Research with twins indicates substantial genetic components for psi-related personality characteristics, such as absorption (Tellegen et al., 1988), hypnotic susceptibility (Morgan, 1973), and interest in spirituality (Waller, Kojetin, Bouchard, Lykken, & Tellegen, 1990).
2. Among those who have many anomalous experiences, psi experiencers are a subset who have actual psi experiences. Although distinctions are fuzzy because of the diverse and often interacting anomalous experiences, this subgroup is indicated by the 10% to 15% of the population who have had experiences that appear to be possible psi (Broughton, 1991, p. 10). The majority of people with many anomalous experiences do not, and perhaps cannot, make clear distinctions among the different types or categories of experiences.
3. Psi practitioners are a subset of psi experiencers who have an ability to reliably guide psi by intention or motivation. This subgroup is indicated by the 1% of those screened for remote viewing who could perform reasonably reliably (Utts, 1996). After reviewing studies that screened for psi ability, Millar (1979) proposed that a "very rough" estimate of the incidence of "psi stars" may be 1 in 1,000. The basic ability to be a psi practitioner appears to be largely innate rather than something that can be learned.
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