The coverage of parapsychology in introductory psychology textbooks: 1990-2002

The general tone of these texts is troubling because they misrepresent the typical parapsychological experiment Most modem parapsychological research has been carried out with unselected participants under laboratory conditions where the probability of participant fraud is low (see Hansen, 1990). Another implication of various texts is that parapsychological researchers engage in fraud (5 books in the 2002 sample discussed fraud by experimenters). For example, Santrock (2000, p. 143) reviewed Susan Blackmore's accusations of fraud pertaining to Carl Sargent and noted that "no one has been able to replicate the high hit rates in Sargent's experiments."

Textbook authors criticized parapsychological research for lack of methodological rigor, improper statistical analyses, and inadequate randomization of stimulus materials. Four of the 1990s texts and five of the 2002 texts discussed the "file-drawer problem," referring to the possibility of publication bias in favor of positive findings and against negative findings. In the 1990s and 2002 samples, only Atkinson et al. (1996, 2000), Smith, Bem, and Nolen-Hoeksema (2001), and Hayes (1998) countered these claims with reference to the role of meta-analytic techniques in evaluating this problem. Some texts inferred that parapsychologists might not be aware of this problem. For example, Baron and Kalsher (2002, p. 116) stated, "While studies suggesting that psi exists may represent a small sample of all research conducted on this topic, perhaps only the few experiments yielding positive results find their way into print; perhaps the many 'failures' are simply not reported."

CONCLUSIONS

Although textbook authors are justifiably concerned that students might accept occult claims uncritically, it is ironic that these texts place so little emphasis on studies regarding the psychology of anomalous experience. Within the 2002 sample, 10 texts cite Gallup and Newport (1991) and 5 texts cite Messer and Griggs (1989), studies indicating the prevalence of psi experience and belief. Within these discussions, all texts suggest that ESP reports can be attributed to coincidence and other "normal" processes such as flaws in human memory and cognitive processing. It is doubtful that these superficial discussions will change beliefs held by students who have had frequent anomalous experiences.

Two texts note that paranormal beliefs are associated with well-studied cognitive processes such as confirmation bias and vividness problems (Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 1997; Huffman, Vernoy, & Vernoy, 1997). Yet belief also comes about through direct experience.

Psychologists have long been aware that experiences, in general, have powerful impacts on. belief. Much evidence indicates that people from all societies during all eras have experienced similar forms of anomalous perceptions; these experiences affect people's beliefs, shaping folk traditions regarding the supernatural (Hufford, 1982; McCloenon, 1994). Those who perceive frequent anomalous episodes tend to develop particularly robust beliefs in spirits, souls, life after death, and magical abilities (McClenon, 2002). We believe that introductory psychology textbooks should place greater emphasis on social-psychological studies pertaining to anomalous experience.