A longitudinal investigation of sport participation, peer acceptance, and self-esteem among adolescent girls and boys

Sex Roles: A Journal of Research,  Dec, 2006  by Elizabeth Daniels,  Campbell Leaper

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In the present study, we investigated the interrelations between adolescent girls' and boys' sport participation, self-esteem, and peer acceptance. Given the increased need for belongingness during adolescence, we proposed that peer acceptance would mediate the association between sport participation and self-esteem. It is important to understand factors related to sport participation because of the potentially positive effects of physical activity on school involvement, body image, feelings of physical competence, and a range of other psychosocial outcomes in girls as well as boys (Eccles & Barber, 1999; Marsh & Kleitman, 2003; President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, 1997; Richman & Shaffer, 2000). We were particularly interested in exploring similarities and differences in these factors for adolescent girls as well as boys because sport is a highly gendered context (Messner, 2002), and boys participate in sport in greater numbers than girls (4.0 million and 2.9 million, respectively) (National Federation of State High School Associations, 2004).

Girls and Sports in the United States

Historically, sport has been strongly tied to cultural notions of masculinity and considered a male preserve (Messner, 2002; Rader, 1999). However, during the last three decades, girls' and women's participation in sport has increased dramatically in the US and many other Western countries. Before the passage of Title IX in the US in 1972, only 1 in 27 high school girls played sports; today the ratio is 1 in 2.5. In contrast, the rate of sport participation for boys has remained relatively stable at 1 in 2 over the last 30 years (Baum, 1998; Heywood & Dworkin, 2003; National Federation of State High School Associations, 2004).

Despite the historical shift in girls' sport participation, some argue that there has not been a commensurate change in social attitudes whereby sport is deemed equally appropriate for both boys and girls (Kane & Greendorfer, 1994; Messner, 2002). Many girls in sports continue to struggle to reconcile their athleticism with traditional standards of hegemonic femininity that emphasize maintaining a thin body ideal and adhering to a rigid definition of beauty (Choi, 2000; Krane, Choi, Baird, Aimar, & Kauer, 2004; Lenskyj, 1994). Accordingly, social acceptance by peers may be especially important for girls who pursue athletics.

Sport Participation and Self-Evaluations

Conventional wisdom is that sport participation contributes to self-worth. However, empirical research has produced mixed findings. Some studies have shown that sport participation is associated with positive self-evaluations in global and domain-specific aspects of people's self-concepts. For example, Marsh and Jackson (1986) found that female athletes had more positive self-evaluations of their physical competence than did female non-athletes. Athletes also had a significantly higher level of global self-worth (i.e., self-esteem) than did non-athletes, but the average difference was small in magnitude. Other research suggests that the impact of sport participation on self-esteem may depend on domain-specific aspects of individuals' self-concepts. In a retrospective study, Richman and Shaffer (2000) found that girls' high school sport participation predicted global self-worth in college but that self-perceived physical competence, positive body image, and gender-role flexibility were mediators of this relationship. The authors argued that it is important to consider mediators that might link sport participation and self-esteem. Accordingly, we considered adolescents' perceived peer acceptance as a potentially influential factor. In particular, we hypothesized that peer acceptance would mediate the association between adolescents' sport participation and their self-esteem.

Peer Acceptance and Gender Norms

In his interpersonal theory of development, Sullivan (1953) stressed the need for belongingness as critical for the formation a healthy self-concept during late childhood and adolescence. When individuals perceive themselves as positively regarded by significant others, they internalize the positive regard and experience high self-esteem. In contrast, when individuals view themselves as negatively regarded by important others, they internalize the perception and experience low self-esteem. In support of this theory, peer acceptance has been found to be strongly associated with feelings of global self-worth (see Harter, 1989).

Peer groups tend to enforce societal gender roles (Leaper & Friedman, 2006); therefore, athletic girls risk being labeled masculine depending on their peers' attitudes. This evaluation may negatively impact their level of peer acceptance because they are not conforming to traditional gender roles. Conversely, research suggests that sport can be an important context for boys to gain peer acceptance (Messner, 1989). Whereas athletic ability is often the strongest correlate of popularity among boys, other factors such as physical appearance are often stronger predictors of popularity among girls (e.g., P. A. Adler, Kless, & P. Adler, 1992). However, some research suggests that sport participation may contribute positively to adolescent girls' peer acceptance (e.g., Jaffee & Ricker, 1993).