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Industry: Email Alert RSS FeedLiving the paradox: female athletes negotiate femininity and muscularity
Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, March, 2004 by Vikki Krane, Precilla Y.L. Choi, Shannon M. Baird, Christine M. Aimar, Kerrie J. Kauer
Within the context of the masculine domain of sport, sportswomen are expected to perform hegemonic femininity while distancing themselves from behavior perceived as masculine (Choi, 2000; Krane, 2001a). However, negotiating the performance of hegemonic femininity while avoiding masculine behaviors becomes problematic for these physically active women. They face the contradiction that to be successful in athletics they must develop characteristics associated with masculinity (e.g., strength, assertiveness, independence, competitiveness), which contradict hegemonic femininity (Krane, 2001a). Female athletes learn what behaviors and appearances are privileged, and femininity is "performed" to gain social acceptance and status. For example, professional female boxers (Halbert, 1995) and elite ice hockey players (Etu & Williams, 1996) often present a feminine image even during competition (e.g., wearing pink).
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It is evident that the privilege, and concomitant power, afforded sportswomen who adhere to the social expectations for women (i.e., perform hegemonic femininity) eludes masculine-perceived female athletes. As female athletes who perform femininity correctly accrue power and privilege, female athletes perceived as masculine are labeled as social deviants (Blinde & Taub, 1992), and they experience discrimination (Crawley, 1998; Krane, 1997). Feminine women in sport reap benefits such as positive media attention, fan adoration, and sponsorship (Kolnes, 1995; Krane, 2001a; Pirinen, 1997). As these feminine athletes gain acclaim, they become spokespeople for their sport (e.g., Mia Hamm for professional soccer, Lisa Leslie for the Women's Professional Basketball League). They also garner respect for their ability to be successful athletes while remaining true to their gender. As these feminine female athletes are highlighted by the media and receive financial and political clout, they reinforce the socially constructed expectations for feminine behavior and appearance of sportswomen.
A problematic expression of hegemonic femininity for female athletes is the presentation of a feminine body. Ideally, sportswomen have toned bodies, yet they also must avoid excessive, masculine-perceived, muscular bodies. Successful athletes must be powerful and strong, yet obvious signs of this power are construed negatively, as contradicting hegemonic femininity. Consequently, female athletes struggle with the contradiction of the desire to be strong and successful, but not to develop "oversized" musculature (Wright & Clarke, 1999; Young, 1997). Muscle development for athletes, therefore, creates a paradox in which a tight, toned body is perceived as ideal, yet large muscles symbolize strength and masculinity (Bordo, 1993).
Two recent studies clearly showed the contradiction between the performance of hegemonic femininity and sport performance in female athletes. Krane, Waldron, et al. (2001) interviewed American college athletes, who revealed that they had conflicting body images. As athletes, the women had developed strong, muscular bodies to meet their aspirations in sport; however, their muscular physiques were a source of personal concern in social settings. This manifestation of concern was tied to their knowledge that their bodies did not fit the cultural ideal of a toned but not-too-muscular female body. Similarly, Russell (2002), in a study of British female rugby, cricket, and netball players, identified tensions between the "sporting body" and "the social body." The women in Russell's study were satisfied with their sporting bodies as strong, useful, and admired while participating in their sport, yet they expressed dissatisfaction with their bodies when they considered social contexts. In addition, Krane, Waldron, et al. found that athletes who wore revealing athletic uniforms (e.g., swimmers, gymnasts), expressed concern about how they looked in their uniforms. Their worries that they would be perceived as fat or too big, in some cases, led to unhealthy behaviors (e.g., dieting, excessive exercise, disordered eating).
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