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Appendix: Chronology of Events Regarding Women in Iran since the Revolution of 1979
Elham GheytanchiFebruary Ayatollah Khomeini and his followers take power
11, 1979 after a revolution.
February Khomeini announces that the Family Protection
26, 1979 Law (1967) is abrogated.(1)
March 3, Khomeini announces that women cannot be judges.
1979
March 6, Khomeini announces that women are to wear
1979 hejab in the workplace. (Hejab is Islamic modest
dress which in Iranian context, at least in the
early period of the revolution, refers to a scarf
and long dress that covers women's whole body)
March 8, A celebration planned by groups for International
1979 Women's Day is turned into a protest against
Khomeini's announcement about the veiling of
women and banning of the Family Protection Law.
Thousands of women gather in the streets of
Tehran asking prime minister Bazargan to hear
their plea. This is the first time when Islamic
forces, calling themselves Hezbollah (Party of
God), attack demonstrations.
March 29, Khomeini announces that beaches and sports
1979 events are to be sex-segregated.
April 1979 In a national referendum, 98% of the people vote yes
for "Islamic Republic." The question posed in the
referendum is "Islamic Republic: Yes or No".
August Khomeini selects members of the Council of Guardians,
1979 a clerical organization with the power to overrule
presidential and Majles (Parliament) candidates. All
leftist opposition groups are crushed by the Islamic
forces. Ayandegan (The Future), an independent leftist
newspaper, is banned. The National Democratic Front
(a nationalist political party) organizes a demonstra-
tion against the banning of the newspaper. The
Mujahedin and Fadaiyan (an Islamic leftist group and a
major leftist group, respectively) are forced to go
underground.
October A proposal for the replacement of the Family
1979 Protection Courts with the Special Civil Courts
is presented by the Minister of Justice to the
Council of Guardians. The proposal is approved.
The government then announces that many branches
of the Special Civil Courts would be set up
around the country. By 1981, there are 80
branches. These courts deal with family matters
such as divorce and child custody.
December The constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran is
1979 drafted. It appoints Khomeini to the highest ranking
Shi'i jurist with total control over judiciary,
executive and legislative branches (velayt-e faqih).
Family matters become the central focus of laws
on women. Women are highly praised for their
roles as "mothers". Article 10 of the Constitu-
tion states: "Since the family is the most basic
unit of Islamic society, all rules and regula-
tions regarding family should serve the purpose
of preservation of family and its relations based
on Islamic rights and morals."
1980-1983 During this time, opposition groups are eliminated.
Reign of According to an Amnesty International report, 6,027
Terror persons were executed in Iran between 1979 and 1983.
June 1980 Khomeini announces the Enqelab-e Edari
(administrative revolution), which requires women
to wear hejab in all governmental offices. Later,
Banisadr also asks women to comply in order to
fight "the Western consumer culture".
Universities are shut down in preparation for an
"Islamic Cultural Revolution".
Four women are elected to the First Majles (1980-
1984):
Maryam Behruzi, from Tehran. Education:
sixth grade.
Gohar ol-Shareh Dastgheib, from Tehran.
Education: M.A.
A'zam Taleqani, from Tehran. Education: B.A.
A'tefeh Rajai, from Tehran. Education: sixth
grade.
These female Majles representatives are
elected for ideological reasons. Even though
they lack higher education, they are proficient
in the Quran and religious matters.
Septem- The War against iraq begins and lasts for eight years.
ber 1980
A'zam Taleqani starts a women's newspaper,
Payam-e Hajar (The Message of Hajar), under
direct government order. It justifies the Islamic
family laws (polygamy and women's lack of rights
with regard to custody of their children and mar-
riage contracts) by referring to the highly
praised status of women as mothers in the Islamic
Republic of Iran.
1980-1981 The journal Zan-e Ruz (Today's Woman), which
was taken over by the Islamic Republican Party
during the revolution, changes its content to
Islamic codes of behavior for women. Zan-e Ruz
was founded in 1964, during the reign of Moham-
mad Reza Shah, and it was largely apolitical.
Editors:
Shahla Ansari (1978-1982)
Firuzeh Gol-Mohammadi (1982-1984)
Shahla Sherkat (1984-June 1991) [she founds
the journal Zanan (Women) in February
1992]
Ashraf Gerami-Zadegan (1991-1996)
Mehri Savizi (1996-present)
1981 President Banisadr's cabinet proposes a bill
that amends the Special Civil Courts Act of
1979 passed by the Council of Guardians. "In
cases where there is no guidance on family
matters either from the Majles or the council,
the Special Civil Courts will base their judge-
ments in relation to family disputes on
Khomeini's fatwas (religious injunction)." This
amendment gives the clergy total power in
interpreting the sharia (Islamic law).
June 1981 The Islamic Republican Party (followers of Khomeini)
dismisses Banisadr in the parliament accusing him of
planning a military coup. A Tehran demonstration in
his support is crushed and the Islamic Republic of
Iran practically becomes a theocracy.
The Women's Society of Islamic Revolution
(WSIR) is founded by Fereshteh Hashemi,
Shahin Tabatabai and Zahra Rahnavard. All
founders hold Ph.D.s from American universi-
ties. They create the organization to raise
women's consciousness regarding their new
roles as "authentic" and "true" Muslim women in
the new Islamic society of Iran. They do not
declare themselves feminists.
March A bill proposed to the Majles on the right of
1982 mothers to have custody of minor children
(boys at age 2 and girls at age 7) after divorce
is rejected on the grounds that it does not com-
ply with the sharia. (Below this age, a mother is
permitted custody of the children. After reach-
ing this age, custody is given to the father.)
Septem- Universities reopen.
ber 1982
Elementary, junior high and high schools
become sex-segregated.
1983 The Majles passes the "Islamic Punishment
Law" stating that 74 lashes are required for any
woman who fails to adhere to strict hejab.
For the first time after the revolution, the Qom
seminary, a prominent and legendary religious
training center, admits over 400 women with
secondary school education.
April 1983 Seminars are held to ensure a unified interpretation
of sharia as civil laws.
Zan-e Ruz discusses the necessity of having
multiple interpretations of sharia. In the same
year, legislation is passed to grant special
loans to poor men and women who want to get
married. This fund, organized by Bonyad-e Shahid
(the Martyrs' Foundation, which deals with
matters related to veterans of Iran-Iraq War) in
the midst of the Iran-Iraq War, aims at easing
the costs of marriages. Siqeh (temporary
marriage) becomes legal, according to Khomeini's
fatwas. (According to current Iranian law,
marriage can be either permanent or temporary. In
permanent marriage, no duration is specified.
According to article 1075 of the civil code,
temporary marriage, siqeh, can last for a
specified period of time. In siqeh, the wife has
to leave the husband's house as soon as the
period of their siqeh is over, or if the husband
waives his right to the remaining portion of the
specified period. In siqeh, the wife is not
entitled to any financial support, or inheri-
tance, from the husband.)
August A bill is drafted by the Majles Committee on
1983 Health and Welfare concerning the status of
"unprotected women" (widows, etc.). The bill
puts pressure on the state to help widowed
women be self-sufficient. It is not enacted until
1987.
Summer A special patrol is organized to deal with viola-
1984 tions of hejab in the streets. These violations
include showing of women's hair, wearing lip-
stick, etc.
Four women are elected to the Second Majles
(1984-1988):
Gohar-ol Sharieh Dastgheib, from Tehran.
Education: M.A.
A'tefeh Rajai, from Tehran. Education: sixth
grade.
Maryam Behruzi, from Tehran. Education:
sixth grade.
Marzieh Hadidchi (Dabagh), from Tehran.
Education: sixth grade.
1985 The Women's Religious Studies Center, also
called the Society of Al-Zahra, is opened in
Qom. This is the first time the holy city of Qom
allows a religious center for women. On the
whole, in all institutions of higher education,
many subjects remain closed to women. These
majors include mining-engineering, manage-
ment, and other professions considered inap-
propriate for women.
February The Majles passes a law giving the Special
1985 Courts total power over rights of custody. Now,
if they rule that the father is incapable of
having custody, the mother can have full custody
of the children. The laws regarding family
matters are gradually shifting back to the Family
Protection Law of 1967.
April 1985 Khomeini gives a speech about the necessity of
women's participation in the Iran-Iraq War. The
Society of AI-Zahra in Qom calls for a mass
mobilization of women in support of his call.
Even though women never participate in any
combat, this gesture has symbolic significance.
1986 The Women's Committee of the Islamic Repub-
lic of Iran is founded by Zahra Mostafavi
(Khomeini's daughter). In 1989 its bylaws are
passed by the government.
April 1986 The Revolutionary Guards Corps, an Islamic
military organization of volunteers, announces
its program of military training for women. It
begins by admitting 500 volunteer women.
1987 The bill drafted in August 1983 concerning the
status of "unprotected women" is enacted. The
government improves the pension allowance of
the widows of state employees who were killed
in the Iran-Iraq War, to equal the husband's last
paid salary.
October The Women's Social and Cultural Council is set
1987 up in order to make policy recommendations
regarding women.
1988 Khomeini announces the end of the eight year war with
Iraq.
Three women are elected to the Third Majles
(1988-1992):
Gohar of-Sharieh Dastgheib, from Tehran.
Education: M.A.
Marzieh Hadidchi (Dabagh), from Tehran.
Education: sixth grade.
A'tefeh Rajai, from Tehran. Education: sixth
grade.
June 4, Khomeini
1989 dies.
July 1989 A bill is introduced in the Majles to transfer
the power of divorce from the husband to the
Special Civil Court (as stated in the Family
Protection Law). Men's absolute right to divorce
is left intact, but divorce registration now
requires the permission of the Special Civil
Court. Men are required by law to provide a sound
argument to the court, which the court can reject
if it does not comply with sharia. The result is
to give women greater power over marriage
contracts.
1990 Four years after its founding, the Women's
Committee of the Islamic Republic of Iran pub-
lishes its first magazine, Neda (The Calling),
which deals with women's legal rights in an
Islamic framework. Its founding editor (who
remains in the post to date) is Khomeini's
granddaughter, Fereshteh A'rabi.
Editorial Board:
Ashraf Borujerd
Sadiqeh Moqaddasi
A'zam Nouri.
February Zanan (The Women) begins publication.
1992 Editor: Shahla Sherkat.
9 women are elected to the Fourth Majles (1992-
1996):
Fakhr Taj Amir Shaqaqi, Tabriz. Education:
B.A.
Fatemeh Homayun, Tabriz. Education: B.A.
Maryam Behruzi, Tehran. Education: sixth
grade.
Parvin Salehi, Tehran. Education: M.A. student.
Nafiseh Faiyyaz Bakhsh, Tehran. Education:
M.A.
Manijeh Nobakht, Tehran. Education: M.A.
Marzieh Vahid-Dastjerdi, Tehran. Education:
M.D.
(In April 1998, this representative is active
in drafting a proposal to have hospitals and
medical institutions comply with sharia
through the segregation of sexes. This plan is
heavily criticized for financial reasons by
doctors and health professionals and is finally
rejected on those grounds.)
Akhtar Derakhshandeh, Kermanshah. Educa-
tion: B.A.
Qadiseh A'lavi, Mashhad. Education: M.D.
April 1994 The Majles passes a law allowing women to
become legal consultants in the Special Family
Courts and Administrative Justice Courts.
Women still cannot be judges.
June 1994 Shahla Habibi and Ma'sumeh Ebtekar are
appointed organizers of the Iranian delegation
to the United Nation's Fourth World Conference
on Women in Beijing. They conduct the first
meeting of all-women NGOs in Tehran in prep-
aration. Total of 15 Iranian women's NGOs are
recognized by the Beijing Conference coordina-
tors. (Some of these were formed only for the
purposes of attending the conference and were
soon abolished.)
November 305 women announce their candidacy for the
1995 Majles. 179 of these women are approved by
the Council of Guardians to run in the election.
The Judiciary branch announces the employ-
ment of 100 female legal consultants.
March The Fifth Majles elections take place. 179
1996 women and 2,751 men compete for 290 seats.
Fa'ezeh Hashemi Rafsanjani (the daughter of
President Rafsanjani) gains the second highest
number of votes.
14 women are elected to the Fifth Ma#is (1996-
2000):
Fa'ezeh Hashemi, Tehran. Education: M.A.
Fatemeh Ramazanzadeh, Tehran. Education:
M.D. (gynecologist).
Soheila Jelodarzadeh, Tehran. Education: B.S.
(Engineering).
Fatemeh Karrubi, Tehran. Education: sixth
grade.
Marzieh Vahid-Dastjerdi, Tehran. Education:
M.D. (gynecologist).
Nafiseh Faiyyaz Bakhsh, Tehran. Education:
M.A.
Qadsieh A'lavi, Mashhad. Education: M.D.
Marzieh Sadiqi, Mashhad. Education: M.A. in
Engineering.
Elaheh Rastgu, Malayer. Education: M.A.
Shahrbanu Amani-Anganeh, Orumieh. Educa-
tion: M.A. student.
Marzieh Dabagh, Hamadan. Education: sixth
grade.
Zahra Pishgahi-Fard, Isfahan. Education: Ph.D.
Nayereh Akhavan-Bita'raf, Isfahan. Education:
B.A.
Monireh Nobakht, Tehran. Education: M.A.
October The first public sports event with women ath-
1996 letes takes place.
February The first women's sports magazine is pub-
1997 lished.
Editor: Seyyed Mohammed Safizadeh.
The international human rights organization
Human Rights Watch gives an award to lawyer
Shirin Ebadi for her efforts on behalf of women
and children's rights in Iran. She is the founder
of the Iranian non-profit Children's Rights Com-
mittee.
May 1997 Mohammad Khatami is elected president.
Women vote for Khatami in great numbers.
June 1997 A bill is passed concerning women's part-time
work. Due to their domestic duties, women can
now work 6 hours and get paid for 8 hours,
October Khatami selects Zahra Shoja'i as his consultant
1997 on women's issues.
The hardliner Ayatollah Mazaheri objects to Iran
joining the United Nations' Convention on
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
Against Women because it does not comply with
sharia.
November For the first time since the revolution, women in
1997 great numbers enter Azadi stadium to watch
and encourage the Iranian soccer team in a
game with the Australian team. They break
down the gates and force their entry into the
stadium despite the security guards' presence.
1998 A number of opposition figures in Iran are myste-
riously killed. The first among them are Parvaneh
Foruhar and her husband Dariush Foruhar, members of
the National Party of Iran. A fundamentalist militia
group called Fadaiyan-e Navvab claims full responsi-
bility for the killings. Some from the hardline
Islamic faction of the regime announce that these
dissident writers killed were "enemies of Islam."
Tension escalates between various factions of the
regime. Independent newspapers play a major role in
pressuring government officials to find and punish the
murderers.
February A bill concerning women's work hours is
1998 passed, in which, in recognition of their respon-
sibilities to the family, 1) women working full-
time may, with the permission of their boss,
work three-quarter time and have it considered
full-time; and 2) women working part-time are
protected by law from losing maternity and
other benefits.
In Civil Code 1082, Mehrieh, the sum paid by the
groom to the bride upon divorce or death of the
husband, is amended so that the payment reflects
inflation and its real value at the time of
marriage.
Civil Code 1173 passes in Majles, requiring a
female legal consultant to be present in the
court during child custody cases
April 1998 Two provocative amendments are proposed to
the Majles:
1) Any instrumental use of women's pictures
that denies them "their dignity granted by
islam" is strictly forbidden in publications,
movies and other media. An aim of this bill is
to restrict new press freedoms created after
the election o! Khatami. It passes.
2) The bill proposing sex-segregation of
hospitals and health clinics is reintroduced.
Again it does not pass; the Council of Guardians
rules it out because it is too expensive to
enforce.
Said Mohsen Saidzadeh, a well-regarded
cleric and a graduate of Qom seminary, presents
an alternate interpretation of sharia, criti-
cizing the proposed amendments on the
grounds that they are in fact against Islamic
law. He is imprisoned two months later.
July 1998 Meymanat Chubak, a legal consultant, is
appointed by the head of the legislative branch,
becoming the first woman to hold such a high
position in the courts.
1999 After 21 years, Iran holds its first municipal
elections, putting an estimated 190,000 officials into
office.
July 1999 After the newspaper Salam is closed down by the state
for its provocative statements regarding the killing
of dissidents, a riot breaks out at the University of
Tehran. The state-controlled media reports that one
student is killed and many are wounded. The student
coalitions, however, dispute the given figures.
February Zanan reports that 57.2% of those admitted to
2000 the universities are women.
February Elections are held for the Sixth Majles, with 5,723
18, 2000 candidates participating, iranians come to the polls
in unprecedented numbers: 84% of the eligible
population vote.
Of these candidates, 417 are women. Jamileh
Kadivar, a reformist woman candidate, comes
second in the list of elected candidates in
Tehran.
Women elected to the Sixth Majles and their rank-
ings in the election results, as of the count on
this date:
Tehran: Soheila Jelodarzadeh (#9), Vahideh
Alai Taleqani (#14), Elaheh Kulayi (#18), Fate-
meh Haqiqatju (#19), Fatemeh Rakei (#24).
Shiraz: Tahereh Rezazadeh
Isfahan: Akram Mosavvari-Nejad
Mashhad: Fatemeh Khatami.
March 1, More than 600 female medical students of the all-
2000 female University of Qom protest in front of the
Ministry of Health in Tehran. The protesting stu-
dents claim that they are deprived of proper med-
ical training because there are not enough female
doctors to teach them. The hardliners, however,
claim that the University of Qom medical school
for women has served as an ideal example of an
Islamic institution, since it trains female
doctors and all of their patients are women.
March 8, Following the election of several liberal women
2000 to the Majles, there is debate about female rep-
resentatives' proper hejab. Should women rep-
resentatives wear chador (a long cloth covering
the whole female body except the face), or is
"proper Islamic dress" (a scarf and a long
dress) enough?
The first gathering of women since the revolu-
tion to celebrate International Women's Day
takes place in Tehran.
April 23, In an attempt to crush the reformists, the judicial
2000 branch of the government shuts down at least 12
reformist publications. These publications are: Asr-e
Azadegan, Aban, Azad, Arya, Aftab-e Emruz, Arzesh,
Iran-e Farda, Bamdad-e Nu, Payam-e Azadi, Payam-e
Hajar, Fatheh, and Gozaresh-e Ruz. (Many of these
newspapers and journals were used as the sources for
this chronology.)
May 27, Six more news publications are closed, bringing the
2000 total to 18.
The Sixth Majles opens with 70% reformists, 25%
conservatives and 5% independent candidates having
been elected. This result comes after many recounts of
the vote by the Council of Guardians. Hashemi
Rafsanjani, who was first ranked as 30th on the list
of candidates elected from Tehran, and was one of only
two conservative candidates elected from that city, is
moved up to the 20th place on the list. Shortly after
student demonstrations, Rafsanjani resigns, leaving
the Majles with only one conservative representative
from Tehran.
Notes
(1) See Nikki Keddie's article in this issue of Social Research regarding the Family Protection Law.
References
Paidar, Parvin. Women and the Political Process in Twentieth-century Iran. UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
Periodicals published in Iran: Asr-e Azadeghan, Fatheh, Jense-Dovom, Mosharekat, Iran, Keyhan, Neda, Zanan, Zan-e Ruz.
Elham Gheytanchi is a doctoral student in Sociology at the University of California-Los Angeles. Her paper "Civil Society in Iran: Politics of Motherhood and the Public Sphere" is forthcoming in International Sociology. Her current research is on women's legal rights in Iran.
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