Asceticism and the environment

Trees, Robes, Jewels

Mahavira exhorted his disciples more than 2,400 years ago to see the trees in the forest not as a resource to be exploited, but for their beauty and form.

    A monk or a nun, seeing big trees in parks, on hills, or in woods,
    should not speak of them in this way:
    "These trees are fit for palaces, gates, houses, benches, bolts,
    boats, buckets, stools, trays, ploughs, machines, poles, seats,
    beds, cars, sheds."
    Considering well, they should not use such sinful language.
    "A monk or a nun, seeing big trees in parks, on hills, or in woods,
    should speak about them in this way:
    These trees are noble, high and round, big;
    they have many branches, extended branches,
    they are very magnificent."
    Considering well, they should use such sinless language.
    (Acaranga Sutra II:4.2.11-12) (1)

The Buddha specified that his disciples were to own only three robes and a single begging bowl.

    Traveling by stages I came to Vesali. There I stayed at the Gotamaka
    Temple. Now that time was the coldest part of the winter, and I sat
    outside wearing one robe and was not cold. Towards the end of the
    first watch I became cold so I put on a second robe and the cold
    feeling abated. Towards the end of the middle watch I became cold so
    I put on a third robe and the cold feeling abated. Towards the end
    of the final watch, as dawn arose putting joy on the face of the
    night, I became cold so I put on a fourth robe and the cold feeling
    abated.
      I thought, "those who have gone forth as monastics, even those
    delicately brought up who might be afraid of the cold, are certainly
    able to get by with this amount in the way of robes. Suppose I were
    to set a limit and were to allow just three robes." So, monks, I
    allow you three robes: a double-layered outer robe, a single-layer
    upper robe and single-layer inner robe--thus four layers of cloth.
    (Vinaya Nis.Pac. I) (2)

Patanjali stated that by owning little, one can arrive at a deep understanding of the origins of things, and that all things will become as if radiant jewels:

    When steadfast in nonpossession, there is knowledge
    of "the how" of existence (Yoga Sutra II:39).
    When established in not stealing,
    whatever is present is all jewels.
    (Yoga Sutra II:37)

These three traditions, Jainism, Buddhism, and the classical Yoga of Patanjali, contain the foundational definitions and rules for ascetic practices in India. By living a life regulated by vows, one can advance to the goal of each system: kevala in Jainism, nirvana in Buddhism, and kaivalyam in Yoga. All of these can be typologized as paths to liberation or moksha. The actual treading of the path entails concerted effort within the confines of ascetic behavior, behaviors that, though intensely personal, nonetheless carry an ethical imperative that can be instructive for the larger society. In this essay, we will examine the content of select vows from these traditions, and explore how they might serve as guideposts for the ongoing development of social ethics, particularly as applied to the environment.

As a starting point, let us consider the statement uttered by the Buddha. The clothing mandate that specifies that a monk may own three robes arose from his direct experience. The Buddha, like Mahatma Gandhi many centuries later, only required of others what he would expect of himself, ensuring authenticity in his teachings. This becomes emblematic of how vow-based ethics developed in South Asian traditions: the founder of the tradition, in this case the Buddha, experimented until he discovered optimal behavior for a life of restraint. Having tried it himself, others were encouraged to follow his behavior.

For Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, this tradition of imitating the founder of the faith led to a great debate regarding the very necessity of clothing. We know that Mahavira eventually eschewed all bodily coverings. According to the Digambara sect, this was a conscious decision. By not wearing any garments, he avoided causing harm to the cotton or other plant material that would have been injured in the production of the cloth. He also became free from the worry that insects might become trapped and crushed in the folds of his robe or loincloth. Senior Digambara monks to this day renounce all clothing. According to the Svetambara tradition, Mahavira's loincloth was snagged by a bush; he did not consciously decide to adopt total nudity, but rather opted not to replace his lost garment. Consequently, all monks (and nuns) of the Svetambara order dress in simple white robes, following what they consider to be the example set by their leader.

Jainism, Buddhism and Yoga require their adherents to live their lives in accord with a moral code. The Jaina code, first fully articulated in the Acaranga Sutra (ca. 350 B.C.E.) was enfolded directly into Patanjali's Yoga Sutra (ca. 200 C.E.). This code includes five vows that frame ethical behavior, much as the Ten Commandments govern the life of observant Jews, Christians, and Muslims. The first vow, nonviolence (ahimsa) serves as the foundation for the other five vows. According to both the Digambara and Svetamabra traditions of the Jainas, it must be applied to all forms of living beings. Even the elements themselves (earth, water, fire, air) must be handled delicately, as life suffuses each of these domains. Detailed instructions are given in the Jaina texts about how to avoid injury by deed, word, and thought. Even pointing must be avoided by Jaina monks and nuns, as it might cause fear to arise in the hearts of animals. The other four vows are practiced in the context of generating no harm. Truth (satyam) must be observed in a way that is both honest and compassionate. Not stealing (asteya) helps one avoid encroaching on the property (and time) of others. Sexual restraint (brahmacarya) helps one avoid emotional and physical harm that can inevitably arise, particularly if one has taken a vow not to marry. Non-possession (aparigraha) frees one from the burden of owning things.