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Sociocultural Correlates of Permissive Sexual Attitudes: A Test of Reiss's Hypotheses About Sweden and the United States - Statistical Data Included

Journal of Sex Research, Feb, 2000 by Martin S. Weinberg, Ilsa Lottes, Frances M. Shaver

Over the last 30 years, many sociologists have identified Sweden as a leader in the trend toward egalitarian and permissive sexuality (O'Kelly & Carney, 1986; Popenoe, 1988). Popenoe (1988) wrote that during the 1960s and 1970s, Sweden developed a worldwide reputation as a "center of sex, or, as it more commonly was put, of sin." Further, Popenoe stated that the Swedish people shocked the world "in keeping with the idea of gender equality" in their disavowal of the double standard: "The attitude became widespread that both men and women have an equal right to sexual experience before marriage" (p. 153). Such a view has been promoted in books for adolescents and sex education materials since the mid-1960s (Linner, 1967; National Swedish Board of Education, 1986, 1977; Trost & Bergstrom-Walan, 1997).

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In terms of research, Zetterberg (1969) found that 90% of a national sample in Sweden felt premarital coitus was acceptable if a couple were in love, and that 70% of the men and 40% of the women thought it acceptable even if the couple were not in love. In addition, Zetterberg reported that only 2% of married men and women had not had premarital coitus. In the United States, results of the General Social Surveys by the National Opinion Research Center have shown that despite an increase in approval rates since the 1970s, acceptance of premarital sex has never reached the level of support that exists in Sweden (Smith, 1990). This was confirmed in a comparative study done in 1994 (Widmer, Treas, & Newcomb, 1998). Social scientists (e.g., Lottes, 1993; Reiss, 1990) also report that although gender convergence with respect to some sexual attitudes and behaviors has occurred in the United States, evidence exists for persistence of restrictive sexual patterns and the traditional double standard that privileges men (Komarovsky, 1985; Oliver & Hyde, 1993; Sprecher & Zeiss, 1987).

Few social scientists have attempted to provide an explanation for Sweden's allegedly greater degree of permissiveness and egalitarianism. An exception is Reiss (1980) who--based on his observations, library research, and consultation with knowledgeable professionals while on sabbatical in Sweden--theorized that sociocultural characteristics account for an egalitarian and tolerant perspective in sexual matters. Characteristics proposed by Reiss that differentiate Sweden from other non-Scandinavian Western countries in general and from the United States in particular include (a) a lower level of religiosity, (b) a greater egalitarianism with respect to gender roles in general, (c) a more widespread naturalistic conception of sexuality, and (d) a more private-autonomous nonregulatory view of sexuality that is reflected in legal and social policy. All of these characteristics are said to exist in individual attitudes as well as in institutional practices. In addition, Reiss predicted that the trend observed in the 1970s toward increased gender egalitarianism and greater sexual permissiveness in Western societies would continue.

Despite Reiss's continued work in the area of sexuality (e.g., Reiss, 1986, 1990) and a general concurrence on the part of other sex researchers on the validity of his theoretical perspectives (Lottes, 1993; McCormick & Jessor, 1983), Reiss's conclusions have not been tested. Thus we refer to them as hypotheses. In his own words, "[My work] is not definitive, but rather intended to put forth some propositions and ideas that may stimulate future research" (Reiss, 1980, p. 216). In the present paper we test the extent to which the sociocultural characteristics discussed by Reiss in his 1980 article currently affect sexual attitudes in Sweden and the United States. Because Reiss stated that his formulation may apply most to the highly educated, to heterosexuality, and to premarital sexuality, we have used heterosexual university students in these two countries to provide one test of these hypotheses.

THE SOCIOCULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

Reiss's arguments about sociocultural characteristics surrounding sexual customs follow, along with a review of the literature related to these arguments.

Religiosity/General Gender Egalitarianism

Reiss argues that three key factors contribute to Sweden's leadership with respect to general gender egalitarianism: Sweden's labor shortages during much of the 20th century (which encouraged the employment of women), less religiosity (which undermined gender segregated and nonegalitarian views), and a relative lack of militarism (which decreased male dominance). Reiss challenges his readers to test the efficacy of these factors in facilitating egalitarianism. The influence of religiosity in shaping gender roles and sexuality has been documented and illustrated by Popenoe (1988). Consistent with the Reiss view, Popenoe described the United States as one of the most religious countries in the West, whereas in Sweden, religion and God are rarely mentioned in public discourse and few Swedish citizens attend religious services regularly. Although all Swedish citizens are automatically members of the Lutheran church-unless they fill out a form to resign--the function of the church is primarily one of bureaucratic record keeping. Other writers have provided similar evidence (e.g., Bullough & Bullough, 1977; Francoeur, 1994).

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Sociocultural Correlates of Permissive Sexual Attitudes: A Test of Reiss's Hypotheses About Sweden and the United States - Statistical Data Included

Journal of Sex Research, Feb, 2000 by Martin S. Weinberg, Ilsa Lottes, Frances M. Shaver

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